Content

[|jennas ap states of consciousness.pptx]

 =States of Consciousness Outline=

Taken from Bernstein Website

> Scientists who study consciousness sometimes call their work cognitive science or cognitive neuroscience. Today, three questions dominate the study of consciousness: What is the relationship between the mind and the body? What processes are outside of awareness and how do they affect conscious processes? >> Consciousness produces the best current interpretation of sensory information in light of past experience and makes this interpretation available to the part of the brain that plans voluntary actions and speech. >> Mental activity that you are aware of occurs at the __conscious level__ of experience. However, mental activity can occur outside of consciousness at the __nonconscious,__ or cognitive unconscious, levels. At the nonconscious level, physiological processes that you cannot consciously monitor without the aid of biofeedback occur. The cognitive unconscious includes the __preconscious__ and __unconscious__ levels. The preconscious level contains everything that can easily be brought into consciousness. Other mental activities that can alter thoughts, feelings, and actions but that are more difficult to bring into awareness are said to be in the unconscious. >> Research on priming indicates that many important mental operations, such as learning, can occur without awareness. >> To investigate whether backward masked messages could be perceived, understood, and influence behavior when music plays forward, researchers recorded readings of the 23rd Psalm and Jabberwocky. The researchers then played them backwards. Participants were unable to discern messages in the backwards versions, and no evidence was found to show that backwards masked messages could influence behavior. Research should now focus on why the myth of backward masked messages influence on behavior persists. >> Brain damage can impair consciousness. Documented cases include prosopagnosia and anterograde amnesia. >> __State of consciousness__ refers to the characteristics of consciousness at any particular moment. Possible states range from deep sleep to alert wakefulness, with many gradations in between. Significant changes in behavior and mental processes are characteristic of __altered states of consciousness__. The value of altered states of consciousness varies from culture to culture. > Early researchers thought that sleep was a time of mental inactivity. Modern research shows, however, that sleep is actually a very active, complex state. >> __Dreams__ are storylike sequences of images, sensations, and perceptions. __Lucid dreamers__ know when they are dreaming. Some theories suggest that dreaming helps mammals process and consolidate information of great personal significance or survival value. Psychodynamic theory suggests that dreams express unconscious wishes. The activation-synthesis theory suggests that dreams represent efforts to make sense of random signals sent to the cortex. > __Hypnosis__ is an altered state of consciousness brought on by special techniques and characterized by responsiveness to suggestions for changes in perceptions and behavior. >> Three major theories attempt to explain hypnosis. According to __role theory__, subjects under hypnosis merely act in accordance with the hypnotized role. They are not in a special state; they simply comply with the hypnotist's directions. According to __state theory__, hypnotized people experience an altered state of consciousness. According to __dissociation theory__, which is a blend of role and state theories, hypnotized subjects dissociate, or split, various aspects of their behavior and perceptions from the "self" that normally controls these functions. When hypnotized, these subjects are sharing some of this control with the hypnotist. >> Hypnosis has been used to decrease pain from surgery, childbirth, headaches, and cancer. More controversially, it has been used in attempts to enhance memory. >> Meditation is an altered state of consciousness characterized by inner peace, calmness, and tranquility. Most types of meditation share common characteristics, including a method for focusing, a quiet environment, a comfortable position, a mental device to organize attention, and a passive attitude. Physiological effects include decreases in respiration rate, heart rate, muscle tension, blood pressure, and oxygen consumption, along with the appearance of alpha-wave activity. People who meditate regularly report experiencing decreases in stress-related problems such as anxiety and high blood pressure. > __Psychoactive drugs__ cause psychological changes by altering the functioning of the brain. __Psychopharmacology__ is the study of psychoactive drugs. >> Psychoactive drugs or substances influence the interaction between neurotransmitters and receptors. These drugs get into the brain through the blood supply when they pass the __blood-brain barrier__. Drugs that act as __agonists__ mimic the effects of neurotransmitters, whereas those acting as __antagonists__ prevent neurotransmitters from binding with receptors and inhibit neurotransmitter activity. >> __Substance abuse__ is the self-administration of drugs in ways that deviate from either medical or social norms. __Psychological dependence__ occurs when a person continues to use the drug to gain a sense of well-being even when the drug produces adverse consequences. __Physical dependence__ or __addiction__ exists when there is an altered physiological state in which continued use of the drug is required to prevent the onset of __withdrawal syndrome__. __Tolerance__ may develop with prolonged use of a drug. >> __Depressants__ reduce central nervous system activity. Many depressants increase GABA neurotransmitter activity. >> __Stimulants__ increase behavioral and mental activity. >> __Opiates__, which include opium, morphine, heroin, and codeine, cause sleep and pain relief. These drugs are quite addictive and act as agonists for endorphins. >> __Hallucinogens__, sometimes referred to as psychodelics, cause a loss of contact with reality and induce changes in emotion, perception, and thought. >> Some say marijuana usage is dangerous, illegal, and wrong. Others contend that marijuana should be decriminalized and used for medicinal purposes. >> //What am I being asked to believe or accept?// >> Marijuana is a dangerous drug. It is addictive, it leads to "hard drug" use, it endangers the user and others, and if used long term, it has adverse effects on health and behavior. >> //What evidence is available to support the assertion?// >> Some people become at least psychologically dependent on marijuana. One study indicated a possibility of addiction. Marijuana interacts with the same receptors as heroin, suggesting that it could lead to the use of more addictive drugs. Marijuana disrupts memory formation and motor coordination. One study showed that long-term use impairs intellectual functioning. >> //Are there alternative ways of interpreting the evidence?// >> The studies referred to earlier provide inaccurate or incomplete information. The same receptors activated by marijuana and heroin are also activated by sex and chocolate. The correlation between marijuana use and hard drug use could be due to the environment more than to properties of the drug. Studies of long-term effects on memory and reasoning are correlational. There is no evidence of a cause-effect relationship. >> //What additional evidence would help evaluate the alternatives?// >> More definitive evidence on marijuana's short- and long-term effects is needed. >> //What conclusions are most reasonable?// >> There is no hard evidence that marijuana is any more harmful than alcohol or tobacco. But while less dangerous than cocaine or heroin, marijuana is not totally harmless, and it is illegal. Scientists must objectively study all of marijuana's effects--positive and negative.
 * 1)  ANALYZING CONSCIOUSNESS
 * 1)  Some Functions of Consciousness
 * 1)  Levels of Consciousness
 * 1)  Mental Processing Without Awareness
 * 1)  Focus on Research Methods: Subliminal Messages in Rock Music
 * 1)  The Neuropsychology of Consciousness
 * 1)  States of Consciousness
 * 1)  SLEEPING AND DREAMING
 * 1)  Stages of Sleep
 * 2) //Stages 1-4: Slow-wave Sleep //. Stages 1 through 4 are progressively deeper stages of __slow-wave__ sleep. Each stage has an EEG pattern characterized by slow brain waves and accompanied by deep breathing; calm, regular heartbeat; and reduced blood pressure.
 * 3) //REM Sleep //. __REM (rapid eye movement) sleep__, or active sleep, is a paradoxical state in which brain waves and other physiological functions resemble those of a person who is awake, but muscle tone resembles that of paralysis.
 * 4) //A Night's Sleep. //Most people travel through the five stages of slow-wave and REM sleep four to six times each night. REM sleep is most frequent during the second half of the night. The amount of time spent in stages 1 to 4 and REM sleep varies with age.
 * 5) <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Sleep Disorders
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Insomnia, fatigue resulting from little sleep or difficulty falling asleep, is the most common sleep disorder and is correlated with mental distress. Relaxation training, biofeedback, and sleep restriction therapy are all approaches that can decrease insomnia.
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> People with __narcolepsy__ fall, without warning, into REM sleep from an active waking state.
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Sleep apnea is a disorder in which people stop breathing momentarily while they sleep. Apnea episodes can occur hundreds of times per night, thus leaving the victim feeling tired during the day.
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is a disorder, primarily affecting infants two to four months old, in which a baby stops breathing and dies. Doctors now recommend that babies sleep on their backs to keep them from accidentally suffocating in soft bedding.
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Nightmares are frightening dreams that can occur during REM sleep. __Night terrors__ occur during stage 4 and are characterized by horrific images, screaming upon wakening, and difficulty in calming down afterwards.
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Sleepwalking, which is most common among children, is walking during non-REM sleep. __REM behavior disorder__, a condition similar to sleepwalking, occurs during REM sleep. In this condition, the normal paralysis that occurs during REM sleep is absent, and the person acts out his or her dreams.
 * 1) <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Why Do People Sleep?
 * 2) //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Sleep as a Circadian Rhythm //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">. Humans have a built-in biological clock that is linked to light and dark environmental cues. __Jet lag__ and its accompanying symptoms of fatigue and irritability are examples of what happens when the sleep-wake cycle is interrupted. Human __circadian rhythms__ are "clocked" in a part of the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus.
 * 3) //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">The Functions of Sleep //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">. Sleep is necessary for resting and restoring the body. REM sleep may help maintain the activity of neurons that use norepinephrine. It may also be a time for developing, checking, and expanding the brain's nerve connections. Finally, REM sleep may help consolidate what has been learned during the day.
 * 4) <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Dreams and Dreaming
 * 1) <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> HYPNOSIS
 * 1) <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Experiencing Hypnosis
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Procedures for inducing __hypnosis__ focus people's attention on a restricted, often monotonous, set of stimuli while asking them to shut out everything else as they imagine certain feelings. Hypnotically susceptible people are more imaginative, have a tendency to fantasize, can focus their attention for long periods, and are able to process information quickly and effortlessly.
 * <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Under hypnosis, people respond to suggestions and can appear to forget their names or even display age regression. Posthypnotic suggestions affect behavior after hypnosis has ended. Some people experience posthypnotic amnesia, which is an inability to remember what happened under hypnosis. Hypnotized people exhibit reduced planfulness (the ability to initiate action on their own), redistributed attention, increased ability to fantasize, reduced reality testing, and enhanced ability to role-play.
 * 1) <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Explaining Hypnosis
 * 1) <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Applications of Hypnosis
 * 1) <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Linkages: Meditation, Health, and Stress
 * 1) <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS
 * 1) <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Psychopharmacology
 * 1) <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> The Varying Effects of Drugs
 * 1) //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Expectations and Drug Effects //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">. People who think they have taken a drug but really haven't may display the effects of the drug because they expect to be affected by it. The learned expectations regarding a drug's effect vary from culture to culture.
 * 2) <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Depressants
 * 1) //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Alcohol //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">. Alcohol has an impact on the dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, endorphin, and GABA neurotransmitters. Genetics influences people's tendency toward alcohol dependency.
 * 2) //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Barbiturates //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">. Also called __downers__ or sleeping pills, barbiturates cause relaxation, some euphoria, and diminished attention, among other effects.
 * 3) <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Stimulants
 * 1) //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Amphetamines. //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Commonly known as uppers or speed, amphetamines increase the release, and decrease the removal, of norepinephrine and dopamine at synapses, resulting in increased receptor activity. Amphetamines stimulate the brain and sympathetic nervous system, raising heart rate and blood pressure and constricting blood vessels. In some extreme cases, abuse of these drugs produces symptoms very similar to paranoid schizophrenia.
 * 2) //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Cocaine //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">. This drug's effects are similar to but more rapid than those of amphetamines. Additionally, the effects of cocaine are short-lived, which may help explain why this drug is especially addictive both psychologically and physiologically.
 * 3) //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Caffeine //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">. This drug decreases drowsiness, makes thought more rapid, increases physical work capacity, and raises urine production. Caffeine can cause physical dependence.
 * 4) //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Nicotine //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">. This drug stimulates the autonomic nervous system. Regular nicotine use can cause psychological and/or physiological dependence.
 * 5) //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">MDMA //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">. Also called Ecstasy, MDMA is similar to both stimulants and psychedelics. It increases the activity of dopamine neurons. Although MDMA doesn't appear to be physically addictive, it does cause permanent brain damage and can lead to panic disorder.
 * 6) <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Opiates
 * 1) <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Hallucinogens
 * 1) //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">LSD. //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is one of the most powerful psychedelics. LSD is not addictive, but tolerance does develop.
 * 2) //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Ketamine. //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Ketamine is used in veterinary medicine, and has hallucinogenic properties when used in humans. Its use can lead to enduring memory impairment.
 * 3) //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Marijuana. //<span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> The active ingredient in cannabis sativa is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).
 * 4) <span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Thinking Critically: Is Marijuana Dangerous?